Unit 1
Phrases, Clauses, Sentences, and Conjunctions
Introduction:
Before attempting to learn about sentences, it would be a good idea to take a quick
peek at what phrases and clauses are, as their study will help us better understand
sentence structures and patterns. However, we will not study them in detail.
In this unit you will be familiarized with phrases and the three types, and clauses
and the three types. You will also be introduced to the two classifications of
sentences. Once you know what phrases, clauses, and sentences are, you can
differentiate between them. It seemed like a good idea to briefly touch upon con-
juctions and the three types in this unit as you will come across the types of con-
juctions in later units.
Objectives:
On the completion of this Unit, you should be able to:
• Define the terms: Phrase, Clause, Sentence, and Conjunction
• Explain the functions of different types of phrases, clauses, sentences, and
conjunctions.
• Differentiate between phrases, clauses, sentences and
conjunctions.
• Differentiate between different types of phrases, clauses, and sentences
Phrase: A phrase is a group of words, which do not make a complete sense.
e.g.: in the east about my success
for his courage in all directions
There are three types of phrases, ****ly:
1) Adjective phrase does the work of an adjective.
The girl with long hair is my cousin.
The man with his wife and children was kicked out.
2) Adverbs phrase does the work of an adverb.
She spoke in a very rude manner.
The accident took place on this spot.
3) Noun phrase does the work of a noun.
I love teaching English.
He has a strong desire to win the race.
“Check Your Progress” 1
Identify the underlined part of the given sentences as “Adjective phrase”, “Adverb
phrase” and “noun phrase”:
a) She was a girl of great beauty. ------------------------
b) He jumped into the sea without any care. ------------------------------
c) Ali hates smoking cigars. ---------------------------------
d) They frequently visited us in those days. ----------------------------------
e) The boy in blue jeans is a singer. -----------------------------------
f) They expected to hear from the agency. ------------------------------------
Clause: A group of words, which forms a part of a sentence and contains a subject
and a predicate is called a clause.
e.g.: why she left her parents who speak the truth
when I saw her how to answer
Kinds of clauses: Clauses are divided into two classes:
1. Principal clause: A clause, which makes complete sense independently. It is also
called independent clause.
e.g.: I received a letter.
2. Subordinate clause: A clause that depends on some other clause (independent
clause) for its meaning. It is also called dependent clause.
e.g.: before I called her.
The above subordinate clause can be turned into meaningful sentence by adding the
independent clause:
e.g.: Before I called her, I received a letter.
There are three types of Subordinate Clauses, ****ly:
1. Noun clause contains a subject and predicate of its own and functions as a noun.
e.g.: I know that she is a teacher in that school.
2. Adjective clause contains a subject and a predicate of its own and does the work
of an adjective.
e.g.: The girl whom you saw in the park is my sister.
3. Adverb clause contains a subject and a predicate of its own and does the work
of an adverb.
e.g.: I stopped the work because I was very tired.
“Check Your Progress” 2
Identify the underlined part of the following sentences as “an adjective clause”,
“an adverb clause” and “a noun clause”:
a) I accept the theory that man is a social animal. -----------------------
b) The story, which you wrote a year ago, is a nice one. -----------------------------
c) She believes that money can buy her anything. -----------------------------
d) I went home after I had finished my work. ----------------------------------
e) This is the place where the boy was killed. -----------------------------------
f) If you help me, I shall be happy. -------------------------------
g) He understood what happened. --------------------------------
h) Although I tried hard, I could not forgive him. --------------------------
Sentence: A sentence is a group of words which make complete sense:
e.g.: Honesty is the best policy.
Man is a social animal by nature.
Kinds of Sentences: Sentences are divided into five kinds depending on their purpose, ****ly:
1. Declarative Sentence states or declares something:
e.g.: Amman is the capital of Jordan.
2. Interrogative Sentence asks a question:
e.g.: What do you want?
3. Imperative Sentence expresses a command, a request, or a suggestion:
e.g.: Please post the letter.
4. Exclamatory Sentence expresses some strong or sudden feeling.
e.g.: What a shame!
5. Optative Sentence expresses a wish, probability or supposition:
e.g.: I wish I could fly.
Sentences are also divided into four classes from structural point of view:
Simple Sentence has only one subject and one predicate:
e.g.: The sun rises in the east
Compound Sentence consists of two or more coordinate clauses (simple sentences
joined by coordinate conjunctions or independent markers) :
e.g.: I went to India and visited the Taj Mahal.
Complex Sentence consists of one main clause (or a simple sentence) and one or
more subordinate clauses (joined by subordinate conjunctions):
e.g.: I saw Sally when she was in France.
Compound- Complex Sentence consists of two or more main clauses and at least
one subordinate clause (joined by coordinators,
subordinators, and independent markers)
e.g.: My friend believes that he can do anything if he has a lot of money, but
I cannot agree with him.
Conjunctions are words that join words, phrases and clauses:
e.g.: I ate the pizza and the pasta. (and – joining two words)
Call the students when you are ready. (when – joining two clauses)
The people standing in groups and chatting loudly. (and – joining two phrases)
It was hot; therefore, I went swimming. (therefore – joining two sentences)
For the purpose of this unit, conjunctions may be classified in three groups:
coordinating conjunctions (also includes correlative conjunctions)
subordinating conjunctions
independent markers (also known as conjunctive adverbs)
Some common coordinating conjunctions (CC) are: [and, or, but, for, yet, so, nor]
Some common correlative conjunctions are: [either…or, neither…nor, as well as]
*These conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal value, i.e., not
dependent on any other element in a sentence.
Common independent markers (IM) are: [consequently, therefore, nevertheless
however, moreover, furthermore]
*These conjunctions connect clauses, which are independent in nature. A semicolon
(
is needed before the independent marker words.
Most commonly used subordinating conjunctions (SC) are:
wherever, before, after, when, while, till, until, as soon as --- (for time)
although, though, even though, despite the fact, in spite of the fact--(for concession)
if, whether, unless, providing, provided --- (for condition)
because, as, since, due to the fact --- (for reason)
who, whom, which, whose, that --- (relative pronouns – used in adjective clauses)
why, where, when --- (relative adverbs – used in adjective clauses)
*These conjunctions introduce dependent clauses (which are dependent on main
clause or the independent clause for complete meaning).
***Note: Different grammar books approach this topic (conjunctions and types)
differently. Don’t be too surprised if you find that the same topic is presented
slightly differently with some noticeable variations in the other books.
“Check Your Progress” 3
Identify the following sentences as “simple”, “compound”, “complex” and “compound-complex” and label the conjunctions (if present) as CC, SC, and IM:
a) She listens to the radio when she cleans the house. -------------------
b) Sally cleans the house and she also ****s the meal. ------------------
c) Unless you study hard, you will not learn and you’ll fail. --------------------
d) I have many friends who are lawyers. ---------------
e) The **** of the city is Santa Fe. -------------------
f) My leg was broken; nevertheless, I attended the meeting. --------------------
Let’s sum up
In this unit, we learnt what phrases, clauses, and sentences are. We also learnt
their types and functions. We learnt that a phrase is a group of related words but as
it does not have a subject and a predicate, it lacks complete meaning. Depending on their functions the three types of phrases are: adjective phrase, adverb phrase, and
noun phrase.
A clause on the other hand has a subject and a predicate, but if it is dependent clause (subordinate clause) then it needs an independent clause (main clause) to convey a complete meaning. Clauses too are classified into three types according to their functions, i.e., adjective clause, adverb clause and noun clause.
The **** has classified the sentences in two ways: according to purpose (declarative sentence, imperative sentence, interrogative sentence…) and from structural point of view (simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence…..).
Talking about ‘sentence types’ led to the discussion of conjunctions and the three main types ( coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, and independent marker words).
Check Your Progress: The Answer Key
1. a) adjective phrase b) adverb phrase c) noun phrase d) adverb phrase
e) adjective phrase f) noun phrase
2. a) adjective clause b) adjective clause c) noun clause d) adverb clause
e) adjective clause f) adverb clause g) noun clause h) adverb clause
3. a) complex sentence (when – SC) b) compound sentence (and – CC)
c) compound- complex sentence (unless – SC, and – CC)
d) complex sentence (who – SC) e) simple sentence (no conjunction)
f) compound sentence (nevertheless- IM)
Unit 2
Subject and Predicate
Introduction:
In the previous unit we learnt about the differences between phrases,
clauses, and sentences in addition to the types of conjunctions. During our
discussion on the mentioned structural items, we came across grammatical
terms like subject and predicate at a number of places. In the study of sentence
types in English language, it is imperative that you learn about these terms as
they lead us to better understanding of basic sentence patterns in English
language (as sentence patterns and structures vary from language to language; for
instance, a sentence in Arabic language starts with a verb, whereas in English it
starts with a noun or a noun substitute, i.e., subject).
In this unit we will learn in detail about subject and predicate. The grammar items taken in this unit will be of immense help with your next unit. In order to assimilate the next unit, you should master this unit completely. Go through it carefully. Remember to constantly take notes in the margin (space) on the right side of the pages. These notes will direct the discussions in our meetings on the pre- assigned days.
Objectives:
On the completion of this Unit, you should be able to:
• Define the terms: subject and predicate
• Identify subject and predicate in a given sentence
• List the words, phrases or clauses that function as a subject in a sentence
• List the grammatical items that form a complete predicate
• Differentiate between the two objects (direct and indirect) and the two types of complements (subject complement and object complement)
• Produce correct sentences using direct object, indirect object, subject complement, object complement, and adverbial qualifications.
Every sentence has two main parts ****ly subject and predicate. A subject
contains a noun or a pronoun and the predicate contains a verb. So, the naming
part in a sentence is the subject and the telling part is the predicate.
Subject Predicate
e.g.: Rania is a wonderful person
Syria is my birthplace
The sun rises in the east
Note: The subject is omitted in an Imperative Sentence (see chapter 1 for definition).
e.g.: Write your ****. {you is left out as it is understood}
Thank you. {I is left out as it is understood}
“Check Your Progress” 1
Separate the Subject and predicate in the following sentences:
1. A guilty conscience needs no excuse.
2. Prevention is better than cure.
3. We should be kind to the poor.
4. God helps those who help themselves.
5. Barking dogs seldom bite.
6. Judy and her dog run on the beach every morning.
7. The man on the bus slept.
8. The dog with the blue collar and the cat with the long claws fought.
9. Everyone has gone
10. Running for a mile is a good exercise.
Subject: The subject in a sentence may consist of one word or several words. But the subject has a noun or a pronoun. The chief word in the subject is called the subject word or simple subject.
Subject word or simple subject: A noun or a word or a group of words that do the work of a noun is called the subject word.
Words used as subjects are:
Noun ------ Man is a social animal.
Pronoun ------ We returned home in the evening.
An adjective ------ The old should be respected.
To infinitive ------ To write letters is very difficult.
Gerund -------Teaching is a noble profession.
Noun phrase ------- The tall man in black suit is my uncle.
Noun + appositive ----- Mother Teresa, a great social worker, is a kind
woman.
Noun + adjective phrase ------ My father, angry as always, yelled at me.
Noun clause ------ Whatever you do is up to you.
A word or group of words that modify or limit the meaning of the subject word or the simple subject is/are called attribute(s). They are normally placed before the subject word.
e.g.: The black cat was hit by a speeding car.
Eager and happy faced children set out on the camping trip.
Huge fierce looking hunting dogs approached me.
Predicate: The essential word in the predicate is a verb and it is often modified by an adverb or an adverb *****alent called Adverbial Qualification (also known as adjuncts). Words used as adverbial qualification are:
Adverb ----- He spoke very clearly.
Adverbial phrase ------ He ate the ******s one by one.
Present participle (as adverbs) ------ Ali went away smiling.
Past participles (as adverbs) ------- She looked worried.
To infinitive ------- He began to work.
Object: When a verb in the predicate is a transitive verb (verbs that take an object), it must have an object to give complete meaning. Words used as objects are:
Noun ----- I wrote a letter.
Pronoun ----- I liked him.
An Adjective ----- We must help the poor.
To infinitive ----- I wanted to go.
Gerund ----- I love teaching.
A phrase ----- I asked him to wash the car.
Noun clause ----- I know what you mean.
Noun appositive ----- I admired Mahatma Gandhi, a great leader.
Direct Object ------ I wrote a letter.
Indirect Object ----- I gave him a book. OR I gave a book to him.
Note: Direct object answers the questions ‘what’ and most often it refers to ‘things’. Indirect object answers the questions ‘to whom’ or ‘for whom’ and it refers normally to ‘people’. Some common verbs that take two objects are: send, tell, lend, write, take, buy, give, show, etc.
Complement: The word, which completes the meaning of the verb, is called a complement. The main verbs that require complement are linking verbs (verbs that can replace verb ‘to be’ in a sentence without affecting the meaning of the sentence) such as: is, am, are, was, were, seem, appear, look, sound, feel, and some verbs like: become, get, and grow.
Complement is also described as a word that is required to complete the meaning of an intransitive verb (verbs that do not require an object, such as: die, rain, walk, sleep, etc). Words used as complement are:
Noun ----- Ali is a teacher.
Adjective ------ Sally looks upset.
Pronoun ------ The problem is this.
Present Participle ---- The book appears boring
Past Participle ----- The spectators seemed excited
To infinitive ----- The train is to start.
Adverb ------ Fire was everywhere.
Phrase ----- My father is in the room.
Two types of complements are:
Subject Complement: It is used to refer to or describe the subject.
e.g.: He sounded tired.
Rami is my friend.
Object Complement: It is used to refer to or describe the object.
e.g.: They ****d their daughter Jill.
We elected him our chairperson.
I consider Hitler a crazy man.
“Check Your Progress” 2
Complete the sentences with suitable predicates:
[object (indirect and direct), subject complement, and object complement]
1. I know ------------------------------------------------------
2. I expected --------------------------------------------------
3. Children love --------------------------------------------------
4. Wendy offered -------------------------------------------------
5. He sent ------------------------------------------------------------
6. He appointed her -------------------------------------------------------
7. He was ----------------------------------------------------------
8. Samir looks -----------------------------------------------------
9. The best thing in life ---------------------------------------------------
10. She became ------------------------------------------------------
11. The court declared him ----------------------------------------------
12. She gave her children ------------------------------------------------
13. She expressed -------------------------------------------------------
14. The boy practiced -----------------------------------------------
Let’s sum up:
This unit explained subject (and words that function as a subject). It also explained in brief what is meant by attribute. You learnt about predicate (and words that form a complete predicate). We also learnt the two types of objects (direct object and indirect object) and the two types of complements (subject complement and the object complement). Brief information was given about adverbial qualification and the words that function as such. In addition, we were familiarized with additional grammatical concepts such as, linking verbs, and transitive and intransitive verbs. This unit serves as a **** for the next one (analysis of a simple sentence).
(See next page for the answer key)
Check Your Progress: The Answer Key
1.
1. A guilty conscience (subject) needs no excuse. (predicate)
2. Prevention (subject) is better than cure. (predicate)
3. We (subject) should be kind to the poor. (predicate)
4. God (subject) helps those who help themselves. (predicate)
5. Barking dogs (subject) seldom bite. (predicate)
6. Judy and her dog (subject) run on the beach every morning. (predicate)
7. The man on the bus (subject) slept. predicate)
8. The dog with the blue collar and the cat with the long claws (subject)
fought. (predicate)
9. Everyone (subject) has gone. (predicate)
10. Running for a mile (subject) is a good exercise. (predicate)
2. Answers may vary; however these could be the possible answers:
1. you/ who did this/ Samya/ that place (these all serve as a possible object)
2. to win/ to get angry….. (these all serve as possible object)
3. stories/ toys/ going out/ playing in sand/ chocolates…. (possible object)
4. some tea to us (some tea = direct object and us = indirect object) OR
them her assistance (them = indirect ob and her assistance = direct ob)
OR her help (direct object only)
5. me some flowers (me = indirect ob. and some flowers = direct ob)
(same possibilities as the no. 4 as offer and send can take two objects)
6. the head of the department (you need an object complement- for her)
7. late/ hungry/ the chief investigator ….. (possible subject complements)
8. quite upset/ annoyed/ excited ….. (you need subject complement for the
linking verb – looks)
9. is love/ is education/ is seeing your children happy…. (add is and a
suitable subject complement)
10. very angry…..(the same as numbers 7,8, and 9)
11. not guilty/ innocent … (you need an object complement- for him)
12. something to eat/ work to do/ gifts…..(you need direct object as this
sentence already has indirect object – her children)
13. her feelings/ her good wishes/ her love (possible object)
14. his French/ writing/ the piano… (possible object)
Unit 3
Analysis of a Simple Sentence
Introduction:
So far in units 1and 2, you learnt grammatical concepts and terms that will assist you in working on this unit and the rest of the three units. This is possible if you have thoroughly mastered the material presented in the units 1 and 2. It seemed appropriate to start this unit with a “Check Your Progress” exercise in order for you to ascertain how much you have grasped and to identify your weak areas (which will need extra attention on your part). While working on the self-check exercise 1 of this unit, if you are not sure of certain grammatical item, you may turn to units 1 and 2 to look up the information.
This unit teaches graphically in tabular form how to analyze a Simple Sentence in five stages. The grammatical concepts used extensively in this unit have already been covered in unit 2. Don’t feel guilty if you find yourself turning several times to units 1 and 2 for reference. It is a natural learning process.
Before you start on this unit, you must work on the first self check exercise.
Do not forget to constantly make use of the given space on the right side of the pages. Remember that these notes will direct the discussions in our meetings on the pre- assigned days.
Objectives:
On the completion of this Unit, you should be able to:
• **** the individual parts in a simple sentence
• Break up or analyze a simple sentence into its individual parts
“Check Your Progress” 1
Answer the following questions:
1. What question does ‘indirect object’ answer?
2. What question does ‘direct object’ answer?
3. What verb may replace verbs like ‘seem, appear, look, sound, or feel?
4. List the verbs that require object complement?
Analysis of a simple sentence
**Before working on this unit, you must refer to unit 1 for the definition of a simple sentence.
There are several stages in the analysis of a simple sentence:
First stage: Break up the sentence in two main parts i.e., subject and predicate:
Subject Predicate
The moon shines.
Jenny is very pretty.
Her parents called her Manal.
My friend sent me an e-mail.
Second stage: First break up the sentence in two parts (subject and predicate).
Then break up the predicate in three parts (verb, indirect object
and direct object)
Subject Predicate
Verb Indirect Object Direct Object
She taught me music.
We sent them greetings.
Ali showed me the photographs.
He lent her the money.
I wrote Sandra a letter.
Third stage: First break up the sentence in two parts (subject and predicate).
Next break up the subject in two parts (attribute and subject word)
Then break up the predicate in two parts (verb and subject complement)
Subject Predicate
Attribute Subject Word Verb Subject Complement
The sky turned cloudy.
Tara is a teacher.
Your parents are here.
My health is in a poor condition.
The girl looks disappointed.
Fourth stage: First break up the sentence in two parts (subject and predicate).
Next break up the subject in two parts (attribute and subject word)
Then break up the predicate in three parts (verb, object, and object
complement)
Subject Predicate
Attribute Subject Word Verb Object Object Complement
The court declared him guilty.
Her parents ****d her Tammy.
They kept me waiting.
I found Maha intelligent.
My father forced me to marry.
My foolishness placed her in trouble.
“Check Your Progress” 2
In each of the following sentences label the underlined part of the sentences as:
Direct Object, Indirect Object, Attribute, Linking Verb,
Object Complement, Subject Complement or Subject Word
1. She narrated a very strange incident to us. _______________
2. She seems very kind and everyone likes her. __________________
3. The 12th century Chinese painting was stolen from the museum. ___________
4. They found the baby sleeping. ____________________
5. She wrote her daughter a very strong letter. _________________
6. Her red and puffed up eyes betrayed her. _______________
7. I was actually shocked. ______________
Fifth stage: First break up the sentence in two parts (subject and predicate).
Next break up the subject in two parts (attribute and subject word)
Then break up the predicate in six parts (verb, indirect object,
direct object, subject complement, object complement, and
adverbial qualification)
Subject Predicate
Attribute Subject
Word Verb Ind. Object D.
Obj. Sub.
Comp. Obj.
Comp Adverbial Qualification
My sister’s naughty daughter annoyed me in many ways.
The doctor examined the sick patient carefully.
All the members elected him their leader.
My father’s remark made my mind very dim yesterday.
I have been teaching Jerry English for two weeks.
She looked very tired after the work.
“Check Your Progress” 3
Analyze the following sentences and record your responses in the given table:
1. Time makes the worst enemies friends.
2. Your reward in heaven is great.
3. My comments made Serena very happy.
4. We chose Ms Deema our academic counselor.
5. Ned appeared quite annoyed after awhile
6. My grandmother told us a bedtime story.
7. It is over there.
8. The team’s victory made him happy.
9. They selected me.
10. Bill presented a formal speech.
11. A pit viper is a poisonous snake.
12. She is ill today.
13. Wendy repeated the message slowly.
14. Jill dyed her hair bright orange.
15. Nancy felt desperate.
Subject Predicate
Attribute Subject
Word Verb Ind. Object D.
Obj. Sub.
Comp. Obj.
Comp Adverbial Qualification
Let’s sum up
The grammatical information, which you received mainly in unit 2, was reinforced, as you had to use the structure learnt in that unit for the analysis of a simple sentence. As we have learnt in this unit, there are five stages in an analysis of a simple sentence. The **** takes you through the stages step by step, re-familiarizing you with previously taken information such as, the types of objects, the types of complements, linking verbs, adverbial qualifications (also called adjuncts), attribute, etc.
Check Your Progress: The Answer Key
1.
1. To whom OR for whom.
2. What.
3. To ‘BE’ (is, am, are, was or were)
4. appoint, select, force, make, choose, declare, ****, place,
keep, label, find, believe, etc.
2.
1. direct object
2. linking verb
3. subject word
4. object complement
5. indirect object
6. attribute
7. subject complement
3.
1. Time (SW) makes (V) the worst enemies (DO) friends (OC).
2. Your (Attr.) reward in heaven (SW) is (LV) great (SC).
3. My (Attr.) comments (SW) made (V) Serena (DO) very happy (OC).
4. We (SW) chose (V) Ms Deema (DO) our academic counselor (OC).
5. Ned (SW) appeared (V) quite annoyed (SC) after awhile (Adv. Qlf.)
6. My (Attr.) grandmother (SW) told (V) us (In. O) a bedtime story (DO).
7. It (SW) is (V) over there (Adv. Qlf.).
8. The (Attr.) team’s (Attr.) victory (SW) made (V) him (DO) happy (OC).
9. They (SW) selected (V) me (DO).
10. Bill (SW) presented (V) a formal speech (DO).
11. A (Attr.) pit (Attr.) viper (SW) is (LV) a poisonous snake (SC).
12. She (SW) is (LV) ill (SC) today (Adv. Qlf.).
13. Wendy (SW) repeated (V) the message (DO) slowly (Adv. Qlf.).
14. Jill (SW) dyed (V) her hair (DO) bright orange (OC).
15. Nancy (SW) felt (LV) desperate (SC).
SW= subject word, V/ LV= verb/ linking verb, DO= direct object, Attr.= attribute
OC= object complement, SC= subject complement, In. O= indirect object
Adv. Qlf.= adverbial qualification or adjunct
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